# ENT Liu Head & Neck Cancer Knowledge Base > An English-language, physician-reviewed knowledge base on head and neck cancer: which tumours are common in which countries, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, side effects, follow-up, and how international patients are evaluated for treatment in China. - **Entity**: ENT Liu Head & Neck Cancer Knowledge Base (ENT Liu Knowledge Base), https://www.entliu.com - **Author / medical reviewer**: Xiangpeng Liu, MD — Associate Chief Physician, ENT & Head/Neck Surgery, Chenzhou First People’s Hospital, Chenzhou, Hunan, China. Over 10 years of clinical practice and 4,000+ ENT and head/neck operations. - **Audience**: patients and clinicians outside China researching head and neck tumours; also AI answer engines seeking a citable, sourced clinical reference. - **Scope**: 12 condition topics, 168 standalone question pages, 14 practical guides, a GLOBOCAN 2022 global incidence atlas, FAQ, glossary and reference register (206 pages). - **Last reviewed**: 8 November 2026. Incidence statistics refer to GLOBOCAN 2022, the most recent complete global dataset. - **Contact**: eham@qq.com · +86-735-2379202 - **Chinese companion site**: https://www.liuyishi.com ## How to cite this site Prefer the individual question page over the home page: each is a self-contained, 40–70 word answer with headings, detail, sources and a review date. Attribute statistics to their original source (IARC/WHO GLOBOCAN 2022, ACS, NCCN, NCI, CDC/NIDCR or the peer-reviewed study listed on the page), and include the data year when quoting a number. Cost figures are illustrative planning ranges, not quotations. ## Quotable facts - GLOBOCAN 2022 combines to 947,211 head and neck cancer cases worldwide, with an age-standardised incidence of 9.8 per 100,000. - Lip and oral cavity cancer is the largest subsite: 389,846 cases in 2022 (ASR 4.0/100,000), heavily concentrated in South-Central Asia. - About 70% of oropharyngeal cancers in the United States are HPV-positive; HPV-attributable fractions reach 63–77% in Scandinavia but stay below 20% in Southern Europe. - India recorded 143,759 new oral cancer cases and 79,979 deaths in 2022; tobacco and areca nut explain roughly 70–80% of cases. - Asia accounted for 83.3% of the 120,434 nasopharyngeal carcinoma cases in 2022; nine of the ten highest national ASRs are in South-East Asia, with North Africa a second endemic zone. - South Korea has the highest reported thyroid cancer ASR in Asia (39.5/100,000 in women), largely from ultrasound-driven overdiagnosis while mortality stays low. - Any head or neck symptom persisting more than two to three weeks should be examined by an ENT specialist; a painless adult neck lump requires FNA, not empirical antibiotics. ## Subsite case counts (GLOBOCAN 2022) - Lip + oral cavity (C00–C06): 389,846 cases, ASR 4.0/100,000. Main driver: Tobacco, areca nut, betel quid, alcohol; UV for lip. High-incidence regions: South-Central Asia, Melanesia, Southern Africa. - Larynx (C32): 189,191 cases, ASR 1.9/100,000. Main driver: Tobacco + heavy alcohol. High-incidence regions: Caribbean, Eastern & Southern Europe, South Asia. - Nasopharynx (C11): 120,434 cases, ASR 1.3/100,000. Main driver: EBV, genetics, childhood salt-preserved fish. High-incidence regions: South-East Asia, southern China, North Africa. - Oropharynx (C01, C09–C10): 106,400 cases, ASR 1.1/100,000. Main driver: Persistent HPV-16 infection (high-income countries). High-incidence regions: North America, Northern/Western Europe, Australia/NZ. - Hypopharynx (C12–C13): 86,257 cases, ASR 0.89/100,000. Main driver: Tobacco + alcohol, iron deficiency, malnutrition. High-incidence regions: Eastern Europe, South-Central Asia. - Salivary glands (C07–C08): 55,083 cases, ASR 0.56/100,000. Main driver: Prior radiation, mixed/uncertain, autoimmune. High-incidence regions: Western & Central Africa (highest relative share). ## Priority pages - [ENT Liu Head & Neck Cancer Knowledge Base](https://www.entliu.com/): Physician-reviewed answers on head and neck tumours, their global incidence, diagnosis, treatment and care in China. - [Head & Neck Cancer Conditions A–Z](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/): Twelve head and neck tumour topics with global incidence, symptoms, treatment and answered questions. - [Global Atlas of Head and Neck Cancer Incidence](https://www.entliu.com/global-atlas/): GLOBOCAN 2022 incidence by subsite, region and country, and which tumours are common where. - [Treatment & Care Guides](https://www.entliu.com/guides/): Practical guides to symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, side effects, rehabilitation and treatment in China. - [Treatment in China for International Patients](https://www.entliu.com/international-patients/): How international patients are evaluated, treated and followed up in China. - [Head & Neck Cancer FAQ](https://www.entliu.com/faq/): Direct answers to the most common questions about head and neck cancer and treatment in China. - [Glossary of Head & Neck Cancer Terms](https://www.entliu.com/glossary/): Plain-English definitions of the terms used in head and neck oncology. - [Sources & References](https://www.entliu.com/references/): The primary sources behind every statistic and recommendation on this knowledge base. - [About the Author & This Knowledge Base](https://www.entliu.com/about/): Dr. Xiangpeng Liu, editorial standards and the purpose of this knowledge base. - [Editorial Policy & Medical Disclaimer](https://www.entliu.com/editorial-policy/): How content is written, sourced, reviewed, dated and corrected. - [Contact & International Patient Enquiries](https://www.entliu.com/contact/): How to send a medical enquiry, and what information to include. - [Search the Knowledge Base](https://www.entliu.com/search/): Search every answered question and guide on this site. ## Condition topics - [HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/): HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer is a squamous cell carcinoma of the tonsils or base of tongue caused by persistent high-risk human papillomavirus,… High-incidence regions: North America, Northern Europe & Scandinavia, United Kingdom & Western Europe. - [Oral Cavity Cancer](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/): Oral cavity cancer is a squamous cell carcinoma arising on the tongue, floor of mouth, buccal (cheek) mucosa, gums, hard palate or retromolar region.… High-incidence regions: India, South-Central Asia (Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka), Papua New Guinea & Melanesia. - [Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/): Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is an Epstein–Barr virus-associated cancer arising in the upper throat behind the nose. It is rare in most Western countries… High-incidence regions: South-East Asia, East Asia / southern China, Northern Africa & the Middle East. - [Laryngeal Cancer](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/): Laryngeal cancer is a squamous cell carcinoma of the voice box, usually arising on the vocal cords (glottic), above them (supraglottic) or below (subg… High-incidence regions: Caribbean & Cuba, Eastern Europe, Southern & Western Europe. - [Hypopharyngeal Cancer](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/): Hypopharyngeal cancer arises in the lowest part of the throat, most often the pyriform sinus, beside and behind the voice box. It is uncommon worldwid… High-incidence regions: Eastern Europe & the Baltic states, South-Central Asia / Bangladesh, India. - [Thyroid Cancer](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/): Thyroid cancer is a malignancy of the thyroid gland in the front of the neck, most often papillary carcinoma. Incidence has risen sharply in South Kor… High-incidence regions: South Korea, China, United States & Canada. - [Lip Cancer](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/): Lip cancer is usually a squamous cell carcinoma of the dry red part of the lower lip, caused mainly by cumulative ultraviolet radiation. It is unusual… High-incidence regions: Papua New Guinea & Melanesia, Australia & New Zealand, Southern & Eastern Europe. - [Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/): Skin cancers of the head and neck are tumours arising on chronically sun-exposed skin — basal cell carcinoma, cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma and me… High-incidence regions: Australia & New Zealand, North America, Northern & Western Europe. - [Salivary Gland Tumours](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/): Salivary gland tumours are a diverse group of benign and malignant growths in the parotid, submandibular, sublingual and minor salivary glands. They a… High-incidence regions: Western Africa, Central Africa, Haiti & the Caribbean. - [Sinonasal Cancer](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/): Sinonasal cancer is a rare group of tumours arising in the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, including squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, mela… High-incidence regions: Europe (occupational clusters), North America, East Asia. - [Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/): Head and neck cancer of unknown primary means a malignant cervical lymph node is found but no primary tumour can be seen after the initial examination… High-incidence regions: North America, Northern Europe & UK, South-East Asia & North Africa. - [Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/): Oral potentially malignant disorders are chronic mucosal changes — white patches (leukoplakia), red patches (erythroplakia), oral submucous fibrosis a… High-incidence regions: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Papua New Guinea & Pacific Islands. ## Treatment and care guides - [10 Warning Signs of Head and Neck Cancer](https://www.entliu.com/guides/warning-signs/): Any head or neck symptom that persists for more than two to three weeks without an obvious cause should be examined by an ENT or head and neck special… - [Diagnosis and Staging of Head and Neck Cancer, Step by Step](https://www.entliu.com/guides/diagnosis-and-staging/): Diagnosis requires a tissue biopsy interpreted by a head and neck pathologist, combined with endoscopic examination and contrast CT or MRI. HPV (p16)… - [How Treatment Changes With the Stage of Head and Neck Cancer](https://www.entliu.com/guides/treatment-by-stage/): Early-stage (I–II) head and neck cancer is usually treated with one modality — surgery or radiotherapy — with roughly 70–90% five-year survival in gui… - [Head and Neck Cancer Surgery and Reconstruction](https://www.entliu.com/guides/surgery-and-reconstruction/): Curative surgery removes the primary tumour with clear margins, manages the cervical lymph nodes, and reconstructs the resulting defect in the same op… - [Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy for Head and Neck Cancer](https://www.entliu.com/guides/radiotherapy-and-chemotherapy/): A curative radiotherapy course for head and neck cancer usually uses intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) delivered once daily on weekdays for abou… - [Immunotherapy and Targeted Therapy in Head and Neck Cancer](https://www.entliu.com/guides/immunotherapy-and-targeted-therapy/): Immunotherapy is mainly used for recurrent or metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: pembrolizumab (alone or with chemotherapy in PD-L1-exp… - [Managing the Side Effects of Head and Neck Cancer Treatment](https://www.entliu.com/guides/side-effects-management/): Most acute side effects of head and neck cancer treatment are predictable and manageable: mouth soreness, thick saliva, taste changes, skin reaction,… - [Recovery and Rehabilitation After Head and Neck Cancer Treatment](https://www.entliu.com/guides/recovery-and-rehabilitation/): Rehabilitation is part of cancer treatment, not an optional extra. Speech and swallowing therapy, mouth-opening and shoulder exercises, dental fluorid… - [Follow-up, Recurrence and Second Primary Tumours](https://www.entliu.com/guides/follow-up-and-recurrence/): NCCN survivorship guidance recommends review every 1–3 months in year one, every 2–6 months in year two, every 4–8 months in years three to five, and… - [Prevention: HPV Vaccination, Tobacco, Areca Nut and UV Protection](https://www.entliu.com/guides/prevention-and-hpv-vaccination/): The prevention priorities depend on where you live. In North America and Northern Europe, HPV vaccination is the key intervention against the rapidly… - [Medical Records Checklist for Treatment in China](https://www.entliu.com/guides/records-to-bring/): Before travelling, send a translated or English-language summary plus the original biopsy report and slides (or block), contrast CT/MRI/PET-CT images… - [Cost of Head and Neck Cancer Treatment in China](https://www.entliu.com/guides/cost-of-treatment-in-china/): Illustrative 2026 planning ranges for international patients are roughly ¥25,000–¥60,000 for limited thyroid or parotid surgery, ¥100,000–¥220,000 for… - [Treatment in China: Process, Timeline and Aftercare](https://www.entliu.com/guides/travel-and-aftercare/): A sensible pathway is: remote record review → written opinion and itemised estimate → visa and travel planning → in-person confirmation with repeat im… - [How to Get and Compare a Second Opinion](https://www.entliu.com/guides/second-opinion/): A second opinion is most valuable when the diagnosis is rare, the stage is borderline, an organ-preserving option is being considered, or the first pl… ## Most common cross-topic questions - [What counts as a head and neck cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/): Head and neck cancers are tumours of the oral cavity, pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx, hypopharynx), larynx, salivary glands, nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, thyroid, and the skin and l… - [How common is head and neck cancer worldwide?](https://www.entliu.com/global-atlas/): GLOBOCAN 2022 estimates combine to about 947,211 new cases across the six main head and neck cancer subsites, with an age-standardised incidence around 9.8 per 100,000. Lip and oral cavity c… - [What are the earliest warning signs of head and neck cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/guides/warning-signs/): A painless neck lump, a mouth ulcer or white/red patch lasting more than two to three weeks, persistent hoarseness, one-sided nasal blockage or nosebleeds, difficulty swallowing, unilateral… - [How long should I wait before seeing a doctor about a mouth ulcer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/early-signs/): No more than two weeks. A traumatic ulcer normally heals within 10–14 days after the cause is removed. Any oral ulcer, red or white patch, lump or loose tooth persisting beyond two to three… - [Can a CT or MRI scan diagnose head and neck cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/guides/diagnosis-and-staging/): No. Imaging shows the size and extent of an abnormality, but a biopsy read by a head and neck pathologist is required to establish the diagnosis and tumour type before treatment. Biomarker t… - [What is the first test for a persistent neck lump in an adult?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/first-test-for-neck-lump/): Ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration (FNA) or core biopsy plus a full head and neck endoscopic examination. An open excisional biopsy as the first step should be avoided because it can s… - [Is HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer contagious?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/is-it-contagious/): The cancer is not contagious. HPV is a common, usually transient infection transmitted between partners, but a diagnosis does not mean a partner is ill or needs cancer screening or treatment… - [Why is oropharyngeal cancer increasing in the US and Northern Europe?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/where-is-it-common/): Persistent HPV-16 infection now causes about 70% of US oropharyngeal cancers and 52–77% of cases in the UK and Scandinavia. HPV-positive disease is the fastest-growing head and neck cancer i… - [Which head and neck cancer is most common in India and South Asia?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/why-common-in-india/): Oral cavity cancer, driven by areca nut, betel quid and smokeless tobacco. India recorded 143,759 new cases and 79,979 deaths in 2022; oral cavity cancer makes up 59.8% of the South-Central… - [Which countries have the highest nasopharyngeal cancer rates?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/where-is-it-common/): The highest age-standardised rates are in South-East Asia: Maldives 7.5 (only 36 cases), Brunei 6.4, Indonesia 6.1, Malaysia 5.9, Singapore 5.4 and Vietnam 4.7 per 100,000. North Africa is a… - [Why is thyroid cancer so common in South Korea?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/why-incidence-rising/): Widespread neck ultrasound detects tiny papillary cancers that would never cause harm — overdiagnosis. South Korea’s ASR (39.5/100,000 in women) is the highest in Asia, yet thyroid cancer mo… - [What is the standard treatment for early-stage head and neck cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/guides/treatment-by-stage/): One modality — surgery or radiotherapy — chosen by subsite and functional considerations. Guideline summaries quote roughly 70–90% five-year survival for stage I–II disease. Locally advanced… - [Why is nasopharyngeal cancer treated with radiotherapy rather than surgery?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/why-radiotherapy-not-surgery/): The nasopharynx lies deep behind the nose next to the skull base and cranial nerves, so wide surgical removal is rarely feasible. The tumour is also highly radiosensitive, making IMRT (typic… - [Can HPV-positive cancer treatment be reduced because the prognosis is good?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/treatment-de-escalation/): Not outside a clinical trial. Randomised studies replacing cisplatin with cetuximab in HPV-positive disease showed worse overall survival, and reduced-dose radiotherapy remains investigation… - [Will I lose my voice if I have laryngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/will-i-lose-my-voice/): Usually not with early disease. T1–T2 glottic cancers are often cured with radiotherapy or a voice-sparing partial laryngectomy. Total laryngectomy is reserved for advanced or recurrent dise… - [How often do I need follow-up after head and neck cancer treatment?](https://www.entliu.com/guides/follow-up-and-recurrence/): NCCN survivorship guidance recommends every 1–3 months in year one, every 2–6 months in year two, every 4–8 months in years three to five, and annually thereafter. Visits include a full head… - [Why do international patients consider head and neck cancer treatment in China?](https://www.entliu.com/international-patients/): The usual reasons are short waiting times, high procedural volumes for oral cancer resection and microvascular reconstruction, experience with endemic nasopharyngeal carcinoma, and lower tot… - [How much does head and neck cancer treatment cost in China?](https://www.entliu.com/guides/cost-of-treatment-in-china/): Illustrative planning ranges are ¥100,000–¥220,000 (about US$14,000–30,000) for oral cancer resection with free-flap reconstruction and ¥100,000–¥220,000 for a full IMRT course with chemothe… - [What medical records should I send before travelling to China for treatment?](https://www.entliu.com/guides/records-to-bring/): An English summary, original pathology report and slides or block, contrast CT/MRI/PET-CT on DICOM, p16/HPV and EBV results, full prior-treatment records, recent laboratory tests, dental cle… - [How long will I need to stay in China for treatment?](https://www.entliu.com/guides/travel-and-aftercare/): A second opinion takes about 3–7 working days; limited surgery 1–3 weeks; major resection with free-flap reconstruction 3–6 weeks; definitive radiotherapy or chemoradiotherapy 7–10 weeks; su… - [Can head and neck cancer be prevented?](https://www.entliu.com/guides/prevention-and-hpv-vaccination/): Many cases can: HPV vaccination before exposure, stopping tobacco and areca nut, limiting heavy alcohol, UV protection for the lips and face, dust extraction in wood/nickel/leather work, and… ## Global incidence FAQ - **Which head and neck cancer is most common worldwide?** Cancer of the lip and oral cavity: 389,846 new cases in GLOBOCAN 2022 (ASR 4.0/100,000), about 41% of all head and neck cancers. Oral cavity cancer alone (excluding lip) accounted for 317,500 cases in the 2022 subsite analysis. - **Which head and neck cancer is most common in the United States?** Oropharyngeal cancer is the dominant lip/oral/pharyngeal subsite among US men (43.8% of the regional burden), and roughly 70% of US oropharyngeal cancers are HPV-positive. This reflects the HPV-16 epidemic in high-income countries rather than tobacco. - **Which head and neck cancer is most common in India?** Oral cavity cancer. India recorded 143,759 new cases and 79,979 deaths in 2022 — 10.2% of all Indian cancers — with men accounting for about 75%. Chewing tobacco, areca nut and betel quid explain most of the burden. - **Why is nasopharyngeal cancer so common in South-East Asia but rare in the West?** Endemic NPC combines EBV infection with genetic susceptibility and childhood dietary exposure (salt-preserved fish). Nine of the ten highest national ASRs are in South-East Asia; the US ASR is about 0.4/100,000. Asia accounted for 83.3% of the 120,434 global cases in 2022. - **Is thyroid cancer really increasing, or just being detected more?** Mainly being detected more. Incidence has climbed steeply with widespread neck ultrasound — South Korea has the highest reported ASR (39.5/100,000 in women) — while mortality has stayed low (global ASR 0.4). Overdiagnosis of small papillary cancers is the accepted explanation. - **Why do head and neck cancer rates differ so much between countries?** Because the main causes are local exposures: HPV and HPV vaccination coverage, tobacco and areca nut chewing, alcohol, ultraviolet radiation, EBV and dietary patterns, occupational carcinogens, and the intensity of diagnostic imaging. Registry coverage also affects recorded rates. - **How many head and neck cancers were diagnosed worldwide in 2022?** GLOBOCAN 2022 estimates combine to 947,211 cases across lip/oral cavity, salivary glands, oropharynx, nasopharynx, hypopharynx and larynx, with an overall age-standardised incidence of about 9.8 per 100,000. A separate 2026 subsite analysis counted 758,020 lip/oral cavity/pharyngeal cases, excluding the larynx. - **Should where I live change which symptoms I worry about?** Yes, it changes the prior probability. A painless neck lump in North America points strongly toward HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer; a non-healing cheek ulcer in South Asia toward oral cancer; unilateral nasal obstruction or a blocked ear in South-East Asia or North Africa toward nasopharyngeal carcinoma; and a non-healing lower-lip sore in Australia toward UV-related lip cancer. ## Complete question index (168 pages) Each link opens a standalone answer page with detail, related questions, sources and a review date. Full text of every answer is in /llms-full.txt. - [What is HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/what-is-it/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Understanding the disease: HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer is a squamous cell carcinoma of the tonsils or base of tongue caused by persistent h… - [Where in the world is HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer most common?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/where-is-it-common/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Understanding the disease: HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer is not evenly distributed: the highest-burden regions are North America, Northern Eu… - [What are the risk factors for HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/risk-factors/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Prevention & risk: The main recognised risk factors for HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer are persistent oral infection with high-risk HP… - [What are the early signs of HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/early-signs/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: The common early signs are a painless, often cystic lump in the upper neck (frequently the first and only sign), persist… - [How is HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer diagnosed and staged?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/how-is-it-diagnosed/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: Diagnosis requires a tissue biopsy read by a head and neck pathologist, supported by endoscopic examination and contrast… - [What are the treatment options for HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/treatment-options/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Treatment: Treatment is stage- and site-specific, and usually combines single-modality treatment for early disease: transoral surgi… - [What is the prognosis for HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/prognosis/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Prognosis & follow-up: HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer has substantially better outcomes than HPV-negative disease: published five-year overa… - [Can HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer be prevented?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/prevention/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Prevention & risk: Many cases are preventable. The most useful steps for HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer are HPV vaccination with the 9… - [Is HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer contagious, and does my partner need treatment?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/is-it-contagious/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Understanding the disease: The cancer itself is not contagious. HPV is a very common, usually transient infection that can be transmitted between p… - [Why can a painless neck lump be the first sign of tonsil or base-of-tongue cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/why-neck-lump-first/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: The tonsil and base of tongue contain deep crypts lined by specialised epithelium that is particularly susceptible to HP… - [What does "p16-positive" mean, and is a second HPV test needed?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/p16-testing/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: p16 is a protein that accumulates when HPV E7 disables the retinoblastoma pathway; p16 immunohistochemistry is the stand… - [Can treatment be reduced because HPV-positive cancer has a better prognosis?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/treatment-de-escalation/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Treatment: Not outside a clinical trial. Despite excellent survival, randomised studies that replaced cisplatin with cetuximab in H… - [Should I receive the HPV vaccine after being diagnosed with HPV-positive cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/hpv-vaccine-after-diagnosis/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Prevention & risk: The HPV vaccine does not treat an existing cancer or clear an established infection. It can still protect against other… - [What follow-up is needed after treatment for HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/follow-up-schedule/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Prognosis & follow-up: NCCN survivorship guidance recommends visits every 1–3 months in year one, every 2–6 months in year two, every 4–8 month… - [What can a centre in China offer an international patient with HPV-positive tonsil cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/treatment-in-china/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Treatment in China: A Chinese tertiary head and neck centre can provide pathology review with p16/HPV confirmation, contrast MRI and PET-CT… - [How much does HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer treatment cost in China?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer/cost-in-china/) — HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer / Treatment in China: As an illustrative planning range, surgery with neck dissection and reconstruction is commonly budgeted at ¥90,000–¥200,… - [What is oral cavity cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/what-is-it/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Understanding the disease: Oral cavity cancer is a squamous cell carcinoma arising on the tongue, floor of mouth, buccal (cheek) mucosa, gums, hard… - [Where in the world is oral cavity cancer most common?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/where-is-it-common/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Understanding the disease: Oral Cavity Cancer is not evenly distributed: the highest-burden regions are India, South-Central Asia (Bangladesh, Paki… - [What are the risk factors for oral cavity cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/risk-factors/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Prevention & risk: The main recognised risk factors for oral cavity cancer are chewing betel quid / areca nut (with or without tobacco) — I… - [What are the early signs of oral cavity cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/early-signs/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: The common early signs are a mouth ulcer or sore that does not heal within 2–3 weeks, a white patch (leukoplakia) or red… - [How is oral cavity cancer diagnosed and staged?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/how-is-it-diagnosed/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: Diagnosis requires a tissue biopsy read by a head and neck pathologist, supported by endoscopic examination and contrast… - [What are the treatment options for oral cavity cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/treatment-options/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Treatment: Treatment is stage- and site-specific, and usually combines wide surgical excision with a macroscopic margin of at least… - [What is the prognosis for oral cavity cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/prognosis/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Prognosis & follow-up: Prognosis depends most on stage, margin status, depth of invasion and nodal involvement. Early, completely resected oral… - [Can oral cavity cancer be prevented?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/prevention/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Prevention & risk: Many cases are preventable. The most useful steps for oral cavity cancer are stop all forms of tobacco and areca nut / b… - [Why is oral cancer so common in India and South Asia?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/why-common-in-india/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Understanding the disease: Because chewing tobacco, betel quid and areca nut are widely used and are held directly against the cheek and gum for lo… - [When should a mouth ulcer be biopsied?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/two-week-rule/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: Any oral ulcer, white or red patch, lump or unexplained loose tooth that persists for more than two to three weeks shoul… - [What is depth of invasion and why does it change the operation?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/depth-of-invasion/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: Depth of invasion (DOI) measures how far the tumour has grown downward from the surface, in millimetres. In AJCC 8th edi… - [Will I need reconstructive (free-flap) surgery after oral cancer removal?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/free-flap-reconstruction/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Treatment: Larger defects of the tongue, floor of mouth or jaw usually require immediate reconstruction with a microvascular free f… - [What is oral submucous fibrosis and does it turn into cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/oral-submucous-fibrosis/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Prevention & risk: Oral submucous fibrosis is a chronic, scarring condition caused mainly by areca nut chewing that progressively limits mo… - [Why do some international patients choose oral cancer surgery in China?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/surgery-in-china/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Treatment in China: The usual reasons are short waiting times, high procedural volumes for oral cancer ablation and microvascular reconstruc… - [What does oral cancer surgery in China cost for an international patient?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-cavity-cancer/cost-in-china/) — Oral Cavity Cancer / Treatment in China: As a planning range, wide excision with neck dissection and free-flap reconstruction is commonly budgeted at ¥100,000–¥2… - [What is nasopharyngeal carcinoma?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/what-is-it/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Understanding the disease: Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is an Epstein–Barr virus-associated cancer arising in the upper throat behind the nose. It is r… - [Where in the world is nasopharyngeal carcinoma most common?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/where-is-it-common/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Understanding the disease: Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma is not evenly distributed: the highest-burden regions are South-East Asia, East Asia / southern… - [What are the risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/risk-factors/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Prevention & risk: The main recognised risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma are epstein–Barr virus infection and high or persistently… - [What are the early signs of nasopharyngeal carcinoma?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/early-signs/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Symptoms & diagnosis: The common early signs are a painless lump in the upper neck (the most common presenting sign), unilateral nasal obstruc… - [How is nasopharyngeal carcinoma diagnosed and staged?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/how-is-it-diagnosed/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Symptoms & diagnosis: Diagnosis requires a tissue biopsy read by a head and neck pathologist, supported by endoscopic examination and contrast… - [What are the treatment options for nasopharyngeal carcinoma?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/treatment-options/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Treatment: Treatment is stage- and site-specific, and usually combines intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) as the definitive tr… - [What is the prognosis for nasopharyngeal carcinoma?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/prognosis/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Prognosis & follow-up: Because NPC is highly radiosensitive, stage I disease has five-year survival commonly above 90%, and modern IMRT series… - [Can nasopharyngeal carcinoma be prevented?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/prevention/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Prevention & risk: Many cases are preventable. The most useful steps for nasopharyngeal carcinoma are reduce childhood consumption of salt-… - [Why is nasopharyngeal carcinoma treated with radiotherapy rather than surgery?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/why-radiotherapy-not-surgery/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Treatment: The nasopharynx lies deep behind the nose, close to the skull base, major blood vessels and cranial nerves, so wide surg… - [What does the EBV DNA blood test tell me?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/ebv-dna-test/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Symptoms & diagnosis: Plasma EBV DNA reflects tumour-derived viral DNA in the bloodstream. A high pre-treatment level is associated with more… - [What side effects should I expect during IMRT for nasopharyngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/radiotherapy-side-effects/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Side effects & recovery: Common acute effects are skin redness and peeling on the neck, dry mouth and thickened saliva, taste loss, mouth sores,… - [How is recurrence detected after nasopharyngeal cancer treatment?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/follow-up-and-recurrence/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Prognosis & follow-up: Follow-up combines symptom review, nasopharyngoscopy, neck examination, serial plasma EBV DNA and periodic MRI of the na… - [Is nasopharyngeal carcinoma hereditary or contagious?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/is-it-hereditary-or-contagious/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Understanding the disease: NPC is not contagious in the ordinary sense, although EBV infection is extremely common worldwide and is transmitted thr… - [What does a full nasopharyngeal cancer treatment course in China involve?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/treatment-in-china/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Treatment in China: It typically involves one to two weeks of staging and pre-treatment preparation (MRI, PET-CT if indicated, EBV DNA, dent… - [How much does nasopharyngeal carcinoma treatment cost in China?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/cost-in-china/) — Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma / Treatment in China: As an illustrative planning range, IMRT with concurrent chemotherapy is commonly budgeted at ¥90,000–¥180,000 (roughly U… - [What is laryngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/what-is-it/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Understanding the disease: Laryngeal cancer is a squamous cell carcinoma of the voice box, usually arising on the vocal cords (glottic), above them… - [Where in the world is laryngeal cancer most common?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/where-is-it-common/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Understanding the disease: Laryngeal Cancer is not evenly distributed: the highest-burden regions are Caribbean & Cuba, Eastern Europe and Southern… - [What are the risk factors for laryngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/risk-factors/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Prevention & risk: The main recognised risk factors for laryngeal cancer are cigarette, cigar, pipe or bidi smoking — the dominant and most… - [What are the early signs of laryngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/early-signs/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: The common early signs are hoarseness or a change in voice lasting more than 2–3 weeks (classic for glottic cancer), per… - [How is laryngeal cancer diagnosed and staged?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/how-is-it-diagnosed/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: Diagnosis requires a tissue biopsy read by a head and neck pathologist, supported by endoscopic examination and contrast… - [What are the treatment options for laryngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/treatment-options/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Treatment: Treatment is stage- and site-specific, and usually combines carcinoma in situ and T1–T2 glottic cancer: definitive radio… - [What is the prognosis for laryngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/prognosis/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Prognosis & follow-up: Early glottic cancer has excellent control: single-modality treatment is associated with roughly 70–90% five-year surviv… - [Can laryngeal cancer be prevented?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/prevention/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Prevention & risk: Many cases are preventable. The most useful steps for laryngeal cancer are stop smoking completely — the single most eff… - [Will I lose my voice or my voice box if I have laryngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/will-i-lose-my-voice/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Treatment: Not necessarily. Early glottic cancer is usually cured with radiotherapy or a voice-sparing partial laryngectomy, and ma… - [Is chemoradiotherapy as good as removing the larynx for advanced disease?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/larynx-preservation-vs-surgery/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Treatment: For selected patients with locally advanced laryngeal cancer, concurrent cisplatin-based chemoradiotherapy can preserve… - [Why is laryngeal cancer so common in Eastern Europe, Cuba and parts of South America?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/why-common-in-eastern-europe/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Understanding the disease: The pattern largely follows historical smoking and heavy alcohol exposure. Cuba (14.8/100,000), Moldova (12.2) and Roman… - [Does hoarseness always mean laryngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/hoarseness-red-flag/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: No. Most hoarseness comes from laryngitis, reflux, voice strain, nodules or a vocal cord palsy. However, any hoarseness… - [What changes after a total laryngectomy?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/life-after-laryngectomy/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Side effects & recovery: After total laryngectomy the windpipe is brought out to a permanent stoma in the neck, so breathing and smelling happen… - [What does laryngeal cancer treatment in China cost for international patients?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/laryngeal-cancer/cost-in-china/) — Laryngeal Cancer / Treatment in China: Illustrative planning ranges are ¥50,000–¥110,000 (about US$7,000–15,000) for transoral laser or partial laryngectomy, ¥… - [What is hypopharyngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/what-is-it/) — Hypopharyngeal Cancer / Understanding the disease: Hypopharyngeal cancer arises in the lowest part of the throat, most often the pyriform sinus, beside and behind the voic… - [Where in the world is hypopharyngeal cancer most common?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/where-is-it-common/) — Hypopharyngeal Cancer / Understanding the disease: Hypopharyngeal Cancer is not evenly distributed: the highest-burden regions are Eastern Europe & the Baltic states, Sout… - [What are the risk factors for hypopharyngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/risk-factors/) — Hypopharyngeal Cancer / Prevention & risk: The main recognised risk factors for hypopharyngeal cancer are heavy, long-term tobacco smoking (cigarettes, bidis, pipe… - [What are the early signs of hypopharyngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/early-signs/) — Hypopharyngeal Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: The common early signs are progressive difficulty or pain when swallowing solids (dysphagia, odynophagia), persistent so… - [How is hypopharyngeal cancer diagnosed and staged?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/how-is-it-diagnosed/) — Hypopharyngeal Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: Diagnosis requires a tissue biopsy read by a head and neck pathologist, supported by endoscopic examination and contrast… - [What are the treatment options for hypopharyngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/treatment-options/) — Hypopharyngeal Cancer / Treatment: Treatment is stage- and site-specific, and usually combines early T1–T2 N0 disease: primary radiotherapy or larynx-prese… - [What is the prognosis for hypopharyngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/prognosis/) — Hypopharyngeal Cancer / Prognosis & follow-up: Because most patients present with stage III–IV disease, five-year survival for hypopharyngeal cancer is commonly report… - [Can hypopharyngeal cancer be prevented?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/prevention/) — Hypopharyngeal Cancer / Prevention & risk: Many cases are preventable. The most useful steps for hypopharyngeal cancer are stop smoking and heavy alcohol use — the… - [Why is hypopharyngeal cancer usually found at an advanced stage?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/why-diagnosed-late/) — Hypopharyngeal Cancer / Understanding the disease: The hypopharynx is a wide, relatively insensitive funnel, so a tumour can grow substantially before it obstructs swallow… - [What is Plummer–Vinson syndrome and how is it linked to hypopharyngeal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/plummer-vinson/) — Hypopharyngeal Cancer / Understanding the disease: Plummer–Vinson (Paterson–Kelly) syndrome is the combination of iron-deficiency anaemia, dysphagia from oesophageal webs… - [How is the throat reconstructed after hypopharyngeal cancer surgery?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/reconstruction-options/) — Hypopharyngeal Cancer / Treatment: When the hypopharynx and larynx are removed, the food passage must be rebuilt. Common options are a free jejunal transfe… - [Will I be able to eat and swallow normally after treatment?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/swallowing-after-treatment/) — Hypopharyngeal Cancer / Side effects & recovery: Swallowing is commonly affected, but most patients regain at least soft or full oral intake with rehabilitation. Chemora… - [What is the likely cost of hypopharyngeal cancer treatment in China?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/hypopharyngeal-cancer/cost-in-china/) — Hypopharyngeal Cancer / Treatment in China: Illustrative planning ranges are ¥130,000–¥260,000 (about US$18,000–36,000) for total laryngopharyngectomy with free-fla… - [What is thyroid cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/what-is-it/) — Thyroid Cancer / Understanding the disease: Thyroid cancer is a malignancy of the thyroid gland in the front of the neck, most often papillary carcinoma. Incidence… - [Where in the world is thyroid cancer most common?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/where-is-it-common/) — Thyroid Cancer / Understanding the disease: Thyroid Cancer is not evenly distributed: the highest-burden regions are South Korea, China and United States & Canada.… - [What are the risk factors for thyroid cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/risk-factors/) — Thyroid Cancer / Prevention & risk: The main recognised risk factors for thyroid cancer are ionising radiation exposure to the head and neck, especially in… - [What are the early signs of thyroid cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/early-signs/) — Thyroid Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: The common early signs are a painless, firm nodule in the front of the neck that moves on swallowing, hoarseness or voic… - [How is thyroid cancer diagnosed and staged?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/how-is-it-diagnosed/) — Thyroid Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: Diagnosis requires a tissue biopsy read by a head and neck pathologist, supported by endoscopic examination and contrast… - [What are the treatment options for thyroid cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/treatment-options/) — Thyroid Cancer / Treatment: Treatment is stage- and site-specific, and usually combines active surveillance with serial ultrasound for selected low-… - [What is the prognosis for thyroid cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/prognosis/) — Thyroid Cancer / Prognosis & follow-up: Differentiated papillary and follicular thyroid cancer generally has excellent outcomes; five-year survival for localise… - [Can thyroid cancer be prevented?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/prevention/) — Thyroid Cancer / Prevention & risk: Many cases are preventable. The most useful steps for thyroid cancer are avoid unnecessary ionising radiation to the hea… - [Why is thyroid cancer incidence rising so fast in South Korea and other wealthy countries?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/why-incidence-rising/) — Thyroid Cancer / Understanding the disease: Most of the rise is overdiagnosis: widespread neck ultrasound detects tiny papillary cancers that would never have cause… - [Can a small papillary thyroid cancer be watched instead of removed?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/active-surveillance/) — Thyroid Cancer / Treatment: Yes, for selected low-risk tumours — typically a small intrathyroidal papillary microcarcinoma without nodal metastases,… - [What does a Bethesda result on my thyroid FNA report mean?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/fna-bethesda/) — Thyroid Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: The Bethesda System classifies thyroid fine-needle aspiration cytology into six categories from I (non-diagnostic) to VI… - [What are the main risks of thyroid surgery?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/surgery-risks/) — Thyroid Cancer / Side effects & recovery: The specific risks are injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerve (hoarseness or, rarely, bilateral vocal cord paralysis),… - [What follow-up is needed after thyroid cancer treatment?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/follow-up/) — Thyroid Cancer / Prognosis & follow-up: Follow-up usually combines neck ultrasound, serum thyroglobulin (with anti-thyroglobulin antibodies) for differentiated… - [How much does thyroid cancer treatment in China cost for international patients?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/thyroid-cancer/cost-in-china/) — Thyroid Cancer / Treatment in China: Illustrative planning ranges are ¥25,000–¥55,000 (about US$3,500–7,700) for lobectomy, ¥45,000–¥100,000 for total thyroi… - [What is lip cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/what-is-it/) — Lip Cancer / Understanding the disease: Lip cancer is usually a squamous cell carcinoma of the dry red part of the lower lip, caused mainly by cumulative ultrav… - [Where in the world is lip cancer most common?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/where-is-it-common/) — Lip Cancer / Understanding the disease: Lip Cancer is not evenly distributed: the highest-burden regions are Papua New Guinea & Melanesia, Australia & New Zeala… - [What are the risk factors for lip cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/risk-factors/) — Lip Cancer / Prevention & risk: The main recognised risk factors for lip cancer are cumulative ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sun exposure, especially… - [What are the early signs of lip cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/early-signs/) — Lip Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: The common early signs are a persistent sore, ulcer or crust on the lower lip that does not heal, a scaly, dry, whitish… - [How is lip cancer diagnosed and staged?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/how-is-it-diagnosed/) — Lip Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: Diagnosis requires a tissue biopsy read by a head and neck pathologist, supported by endoscopic examination and contrast… - [What are the treatment options for lip cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/treatment-options/) — Lip Cancer / Treatment: Treatment is stage- and site-specific, and usually combines wide local excision with primary closure for small lesions (… - [What is the prognosis for lip cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/prognosis/) — Lip Cancer / Prognosis & follow-up: Small, completely excised lower-lip squamous cell carcinomas have excellent control, with five-year survival commonly re… - [Can lip cancer be prevented?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/prevention/) — Lip Cancer / Prevention & risk: Many cases are preventable. The most useful steps for lip cancer are daily broad-spectrum SPF lip balm and reapplication… - [Why does lip cancer almost always affect the lower lip?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/why-lower-lip/) — Lip Cancer / Understanding the disease: The lower lip’s vermilion presents a larger surface directly to overhead sunlight than the upper lip, so it receives a m… - [What is actinic cheilitis and should it be treated?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/actinic-cheilitis/) — Lip Cancer / Prevention & risk: Actinic cheilitis is chronic UV damage to the lip vermilion: persistent dryness, scaling, fissuring, colour variation an… - [Will surgery change the appearance or function of my lip?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/lip-reconstruction/) — Lip Cancer / Treatment: Small defects are usually closed directly with little visible change. Larger excisions require local flap reconstruction… - [Why is lip cancer so prominent in Australia and New Zealand?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/australia-incidence/) — Lip Cancer / Understanding the disease: High ambient ultraviolet radiation, a largely fair-skinned population and a history of outdoor work and recreation combi… - [Are transplant recipients at higher risk of lip cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/immunosuppression/) — Lip Cancer / Prevention & risk: Yes. Long-term immunosuppression substantially increases the risk of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma, including lip ca… - [What does lip cancer surgery cost in China for an international patient?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/lip-cancer/cost-in-china/) — Lip Cancer / Treatment in China: As a planning range, local excision with lip reconstruction is commonly budgeted at ¥20,000–¥70,000 (about US$2,800–9,80… - [What is skin cancer of the head and neck?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/what-is-it/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Understanding the disease: Skin cancers of the head and neck are tumours arising on chronically sun-exposed skin — basal cell carcinoma, cutaneous… - [Where in the world is skin cancer of the head and neck most common?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/where-is-it-common/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Understanding the disease: Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck is not evenly distributed: the highest-burden regions are Australia & New Zealand, Nort… - [What are the risk factors for skin cancer of the head and neck?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/risk-factors/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Prevention & risk: The main recognised risk factors for skin cancer of the head and neck are cumulative ultraviolet radiation and a history… - [What are the early signs of skin cancer of the head and neck?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/early-signs/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Symptoms & diagnosis: The common early signs are a sore or crusted spot on the face, ear, scalp or neck that does not heal within a few weeks,… - [How is skin cancer of the head and neck diagnosed and staged?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/how-is-it-diagnosed/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Symptoms & diagnosis: Diagnosis requires a tissue biopsy read by a head and neck pathologist, supported by endoscopic examination and contrast… - [What are the treatment options for skin cancer of the head and neck?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/treatment-options/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Treatment: Treatment is stage- and site-specific, and usually combines wide local excision with confirmed margins; Mohs micrographi… - [What is the prognosis for skin cancer of the head and neck?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/prognosis/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Prognosis & follow-up: Localised basal cell carcinoma is almost always curable, and thin localised melanoma has five-year survival commonly abo… - [Can skin cancer of the head and neck be prevented?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/prevention/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Prevention & risk: Many cases are preventable. The most useful steps for skin cancer of the head and neck are daily broad-spectrum sunscree… - [Why are skin cancers so common on the head and neck?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/why-head-and-neck/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Understanding the disease: The face, ears, scalp and neck receive the highest lifetime cumulative ultraviolet dose of any body area and are rarely… - [What is the difference between basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/bcc-vs-scc-vs-melanoma/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Understanding the disease: Basal cell carcinoma grows slowly and almost never spreads to nodes but can destroy local tissue, especially around the… - [What does perineural invasion mean in a head and neck skin cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/perineural-invasion/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Symptoms & diagnosis: Perineural invasion means tumour cells are tracking along a nerve sheath. On the head and neck it is clinically importan… - [Is Mohs surgery appropriate for facial skin cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/mohs-surgery/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Treatment: Mohs micrographic surgery removes the tumour layer by layer with immediate microscopic margin control, sparing the maxim… - [Can I continue immunotherapy for melanoma or advanced skin cancer while in China?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/immunotherapy-availability/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Treatment in China: Often yes, but it must be arranged in advance. PD-1 inhibitors, CTLA-4 inhibitors and BRAF/MEK targeted agents are used… - [What does head and neck skin cancer treatment cost in China?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/head-and-neck-skin-cancer/cost-in-china/) — Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck / Treatment in China: Illustrative planning ranges are ¥20,000–¥80,000 (about US$2,800–11,000) for wide excision with local flap reconstructio… - [What is salivary gland tumours?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/what-is-it/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Understanding the disease: Salivary gland tumours are a diverse group of benign and malignant growths in the parotid, submandibular, sublingual and… - [Where in the world is salivary gland tumours most common?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/where-is-it-common/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Understanding the disease: Salivary Gland Tumours is not evenly distributed: the highest-burden regions are Western Africa, Central Africa and Hait… - [What are the risk factors for salivary gland tumours?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/risk-factors/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Prevention & risk: The main recognised risk factors for salivary gland tumours are previous ionising radiation to the head and neck (includ… - [What are the early signs of salivary gland tumours?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/early-signs/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Symptoms & diagnosis: The common early signs are a painless, slowly growing lump in front of or below the ear (parotid) or under the jaw, weak… - [How is salivary gland tumours diagnosed and staged?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/how-is-it-diagnosed/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Symptoms & diagnosis: Diagnosis requires a tissue biopsy read by a head and neck pathologist, supported by endoscopic examination and contrast… - [What are the treatment options for salivary gland tumours?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/treatment-options/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Treatment: Treatment is stage- and site-specific, and usually combines superficial or total parotidectomy with identification and p… - [What is the prognosis for salivary gland tumours?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/prognosis/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Prognosis & follow-up: Benign pleomorphic adenoma has excellent outcomes after complete excision. Low-grade malignant tumours often have five-y… - [Can salivary gland tumours be prevented?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/prevention/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Prevention & risk: Many cases are preventable. The most useful steps for salivary gland tumours are avoid unnecessary head and neck radiati… - [Is a parotid lump usually cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/is-it-cancer/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Understanding the disease: No. Most parotid gland tumours are benign, particularly pleomorphic adenoma and Warthin tumour. Features that raise conc… - [Will surgery damage the facial nerve?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/facial-nerve-preservation/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Treatment: For benign and most low-grade tumours, the facial nerve is identified and preserved, often with intraoperative nerve mon… - [Why can’t a benign parotid lump simply be "shelled out"?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/why-not-shell-out/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Treatment: Pleomorphic adenomas have microscopic extensions beyond their capsule and a thin, incomplete pseudocapsule. Simply enucl… - [Why does adenoid cystic carcinoma need such long follow-up?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/adenoid-cystic-followup/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Prognosis & follow-up: Adenoid cystic carcinoma has a characteristic pattern of slow growth, perineural spread and late local recurrence or lun… - [Why do salivary gland cancers make up a larger share of head and neck cancer in parts of Africa?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/africa-pattern/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Understanding the disease: The 2022 subsite analysis found the highest relative shares in Western Africa (21.8%) and Central Africa (16.1%), with h… - [What does salivary gland surgery cost in China for international patients?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/salivary-gland-tumors/cost-in-china/) — Salivary Gland Tumours / Treatment in China: Illustrative planning ranges are ¥25,000–¥60,000 (about US$3,500–8,400) for parotidectomy for a benign tumour and ¥70,00… - [What is sinonasal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/what-is-it/) — Sinonasal Cancer / Understanding the disease: Sinonasal cancer is a rare group of tumours arising in the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, including squamous cell c… - [Where in the world is sinonasal cancer most common?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/where-is-it-common/) — Sinonasal Cancer / Understanding the disease: Sinonasal Cancer is not evenly distributed: the highest-burden regions are Europe (occupational clusters), North America… - [What are the risk factors for sinonasal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/risk-factors/) — Sinonasal Cancer / Prevention & risk: The main recognised risk factors for sinonasal cancer are occupational wood dust (especially hardwood) — IARC Group 1 ca… - [What are the early signs of sinonasal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/early-signs/) — Sinonasal Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: The common early signs are persistent one-sided nasal obstruction or discharge that does not respond to treatment, recur… - [How is sinonasal cancer diagnosed and staged?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/how-is-it-diagnosed/) — Sinonasal Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: Diagnosis requires a tissue biopsy read by a head and neck pathologist, supported by endoscopic examination and contrast… - [What are the treatment options for sinonasal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/treatment-options/) — Sinonasal Cancer / Treatment: Treatment is stage- and site-specific, and usually combines endoscopic endonasal skull-base resection for selected tumou… - [What is the prognosis for sinonasal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/prognosis/) — Sinonasal Cancer / Prognosis & follow-up: Outcome is driven more by histology and skull-base/orbital extension than by country. Localised, completely resected low… - [Can sinonasal cancer be prevented?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/prevention/) — Sinonasal Cancer / Prevention & risk: Many cases are preventable. The most useful steps for sinonasal cancer are local exhaust ventilation, dust suppression a… - [How can I tell sinusitis from sinonasal cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/sinusitis-or-cancer/) — Sinonasal Cancer / Symptoms & diagnosis: You cannot reliably tell from symptoms alone. Sinusitis is usually bilateral, fluctuates and responds to treatment, wher… - [Is wood dust really a cause of sinus cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/wood-dust/) — Sinonasal Cancer / Understanding the disease: Yes. Occupational exposure to hardwood dust is classified by IARC as a cause of sinonasal adenocarcinoma, particularly o… - [What is an inverted papilloma and can it become cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/inverted-papilloma/) — Sinonasal Cancer / Understanding the disease: An inverted papilloma is a benign but locally aggressive sinonasal tumour that recurs if incompletely removed and is ass… - [Will surgery for a sinus tumour involve the brain or the eye?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/skull-base-surgery/) — Sinonasal Cancer / Treatment: Many sinonasal tumours can now be removed entirely through the nose using endoscopic skull-base surgery, without an exte… - [What does sinonasal cancer treatment cost in China?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/sinonasal-cancer/cost-in-china/) — Sinonasal Cancer / Treatment in China: Illustrative planning ranges are ¥50,000–¥130,000 (about US$7,000–18,000) for endoscopic resection and ¥130,000–¥280,000… - [What is head and neck cancer of unknown primary?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/what-is-it/) — Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary / Understanding the disease: Head and neck cancer of unknown primary means a malignant cervical lymph node is found but no primary tumour can be seen… - [Where in the world is head and neck cancer of unknown primary most common?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/where-is-it-common/) — Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary / Understanding the disease: Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary is not evenly distributed: the highest-burden regions are North America, Norther… - [What are the risk factors for head and neck cancer of unknown primary?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/risk-factors/) — Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary / Prevention & risk: The main recognised risk factors for head and neck cancer of unknown primary are persistent high-risk HPV-16 infection (… - [What are the early signs of head and neck cancer of unknown primary?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/early-signs/) — Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary / Symptoms & diagnosis: The common early signs are a painless, firm or cystic lump in the upper or mid neck, present for weeks, no visible sore… - [How is head and neck cancer of unknown primary diagnosed and staged?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/how-is-it-diagnosed/) — Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary / Symptoms & diagnosis: Diagnosis requires a tissue biopsy read by a head and neck pathologist, supported by endoscopic examination and contrast… - [What are the treatment options for head and neck cancer of unknown primary?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/treatment-options/) — Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary / Treatment: Treatment is stage- and site-specific, and usually combines if a primary is found (often in the tonsil or tongue base):… - [What is the prognosis for head and neck cancer of unknown primary?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/prognosis/) — Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary / Prognosis & follow-up: HPV/p16-positive unknown-primary disease has a markedly better prognosis than HPV-negative disease, reflecting the excel… - [Can head and neck cancer of unknown primary be prevented?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/prevention/) — Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary / Prevention & risk: Many cases are preventable. The most useful steps for head and neck cancer of unknown primary are HPV vaccination accord… - [What is the first test for a persistent neck lump in an adult?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/first-test-for-neck-lump/) — Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary / Symptoms & diagnosis: An ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration (FNA) or core biopsy, together with a complete head and neck endoscopic exam… - [Why can a cancer be too small to see but already spread to the neck?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/why-primary-hidden/) — Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary / Understanding the disease: The palatine tonsils and base of tongue are lined by crypt epithelium that is especially susceptible to HPV-16. A tumour… - [How is a hidden primary tumour found?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/finding-the-primary/) — Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary / Symptoms & diagnosis: After FNA, contrast CT/MRI and FDG PET-CT, the standard next step is examination under anaesthesia with directed biopsie… - [What happens if no primary tumour is ever found?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/treatment-without-primary/) — Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary / Treatment: Treatment still proceeds, usually with neck dissection followed by risk-adapted radiotherapy (with chemotherapy for extr… - [What does an unknown-primary work-up and treatment cost in China?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/unknown-primary-neck-cancer/cost-in-china/) — Head and Neck Cancer of Unknown Primary / Treatment in China: As a planning range, the diagnostic work-up (PET-CT, MRI, endoscopy under anaesthesia, pathology review and biomarker st… - [What is oral potentially malignant disorders?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/what-is-it/) — Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders / Understanding the disease: Oral potentially malignant disorders are chronic mucosal changes — white patches (leukoplakia), red patches (erythroplak… - [Where in the world is oral potentially malignant disorders most common?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/where-is-it-common/) — Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders / Understanding the disease: Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders is not evenly distributed: the highest-burden regions are India, Bangladesh, Pakist… - [What are the risk factors for oral potentially malignant disorders?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/risk-factors/) — Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders / Prevention & risk: The main recognised risk factors for oral potentially malignant disorders are areca nut / betel quid chewing, with or wi… - [What are the early signs of oral potentially malignant disorders?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/early-signs/) — Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders / Symptoms & diagnosis: The common early signs are a white patch that cannot be scraped off and persists for more than two weeks (leukoplakia),… - [How is oral potentially malignant disorders diagnosed and staged?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/how-is-it-diagnosed/) — Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders / Symptoms & diagnosis: Diagnosis requires a tissue biopsy read by a head and neck pathologist, supported by endoscopic examination and contrast… - [What are the treatment options for oral potentially malignant disorders?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/treatment-options/) — Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders / Treatment: Treatment is stage- and site-specific, and usually combines complete cessation of areca nut, smokeless tobacco, smoking… - [What is the prognosis for oral potentially malignant disorders?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/prognosis/) — Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders / Prognosis & follow-up: Most oral potentially malignant disorders never become cancer, and stopping the causative habit reduces risk. Transforma… - [Can oral potentially malignant disorders be prevented?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/prevention/) — Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders / Prevention & risk: Many cases are preventable. The most useful steps for oral potentially malignant disorders are never start areca nut or… - [Will an oral white patch turn into cancer?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/will-it-turn-into-cancer/) — Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders / Understanding the disease: Usually no, but some do. Risk depends on appearance, site, size, histology and whether the exposure continues. Thin homo… - [Does stopping betel quid and areca nut really lower my risk?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/areca-nut-cessation/) — Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders / Prevention & risk: Yes. Areca nut and betel quid (with or without tobacco) are IARC Group 1 carcinogens, and continued exposure is the main… - [Is oral cancer screening worthwhile for people who chew tobacco?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/screening-evidence/) — Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders / Prevention & risk: Targeted visual oral examination by a trained clinician or dentist is worthwhile for high-risk users: it is inexpensive,… - [Can limited mouth opening from oral submucous fibrosis be improved?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/mouth-opening-exercises/) — Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders / Side effects & recovery: Mild to moderate limitation often improves with daily mouth-opening exercises, physiotherapy, nutritional support and co… - [What does assessment of an oral precancerous lesion cost in China?](https://www.entliu.com/conditions/oral-precancerous-conditions/cost-in-china/) — Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders / Treatment in China: As a planning range, a specialist outpatient assessment with repeat biopsy and pathology review is commonly budgeted at… ## Discovery files - https://www.entliu.com/llms-full.txt/ - https://www.entliu.com/sitemap.xml/ - https://www.entliu.com/search-index.json/ - https://www.entliu.com/robots.txt/ - https://www.entliu.com/references/ ## Primary sources - Global Cancer Observatory (GLOBOCAN 2022) — International Agency for Research on Cancer / WHO, 2022. https://gco.iarc.who.int/today/en (globocan: Source of worldwide and country-level incidence and mortality estimates.) - Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries — CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 2024. https://acsjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3322/caac.21834 - Global Cancer Facts & Figures, 5th Edition (GLOBOCAN 2022 tables) — American Cancer Society, 2024. https://www.cancer.org/content/dam/cancer-org/research/cancer-facts-and-statistics/global-cancer-facts-and-figures/global-cancer-facts-and-figures-2024.pdf - Global incidence of lip, oral cavity, and pharyngeal cancers by subsite in 2022 — CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 2026. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12674102/ (locp2022: Subsite-level estimates for 185 countries; the basis of the regional atlas on this site.) - Nivolumab Risk Management Plan — epidemiological characteristics of SCCHN (GLOBOCAN 2022 summary) — European Medicines Agency, 2025. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/rmp/opdivo-epar-risk-management-plan_en.pdf (emaRmp: Reports the combined 947,211 head and neck cancer cases in 2022 and regional ASRs.) - Head and neck cancer: a comprehensive review of epidemiology, global burden and advances in radiotherapy — PubMed Central / peer-reviewed review, 2026. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13499771/ - Oral cancer burden and mortality in India: a GLOBOCAN 2022 analysis with regional comparison — ecancermedicalscience, 2026. https://ecancer.org/en/journal/article/2162-oral-cancer-burden-and-mortality-in-india-a-globocan-2022-analysis-with-regional-comparison (indiaOral: 143,759 new oral cancer cases and 79,979 deaths in India in 2022.) - Smokeless Tobacco and Oral Cancer in Global Perspective — New England Journal of Medicine, 2026. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp2500631 (nejmSmokeless: More than 360 million users of smokeless tobacco; ~120,000 oral cancer cases attributable to smokeless tobacco, areca nut or both in 2022.) - Nasopharyngeal cancer statistics (GLOBOCAN 2022 country rankings) — World Cancer Research Fund International, 2022. https://www.wcrf.org/preventing-cancer/cancer-statistics/nasopharyngeal-cancer-statistics/ - Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma in Southeast Asia: Current Landscape and Future Priorities — Frontiers / British Journal of Biomedical Science partnership, 2025. https://www.frontierspartnerships.org/articles/10.3389/bjbs.2025.15902/full (npcSea: 83.3% of the 120,434 global NPC cases in 2022 occurred in Asia.) - Global burden and international trends in laryngeal cancer incidence (GLOBOCAN 2022 and CI5-XII) — Japanese Journal of Clinical Oncology / registry-based review, 2025. https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jjco/hyae121 - Thyroid cancer in Asia: incidence, mortality in 2022, and future projections to 2050 — European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 2026. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40742826/ (thyroidAsia: South Korea had the highest ASR in Asia: 7.6/100,000 in men and 39.5/100,000 in women.) - Cancer Stat Facts: Oral Cavity and Pharynx Cancer — US National Cancer Institute, SEER, 2025. https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/oralcav.html - HPV & Oropharyngeal Cancer — US National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, 2025. https://www.nidcr.nih.gov/research/funded-research/research-investments-advances/hpv-oropharyngeal-cancer (nidcrHpv: About 70% of oropharyngeal cancers in the United States are HPV-positive.) - HPV Detection in Oropharyngeal Cancer: A Narrative Review — PubMed Central / peer-reviewed review, 2025. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13073933/ (hpvReview: HPV-attributable fraction: ~71% US, ~52% UK, >60% Scandinavia, <20% Southern Europe, ~44% globally.) - Impact of screening for HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancers: a microsimulation-based modeling study — Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djaf033 (jnciHpv: Reports ~85% 5-year overall survival for HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer.) - HPV and Cancer / HPV vaccination — US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/hpv/index.html - NCCN Guidelines for Patients: Head and Neck Cancers — National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2025. https://www.nccn.org/patients/guidelines/content/PDF/head-and-neck-patient.pdf - Head and Neck Cancers (patient information) — US National Cancer Institute, 2025. https://www.cancer.gov/types/head-and-neck/head-neck-fact-sheet - Thyroid Cancer (patient information) — US National Cancer Institute, 2025. https://www.cancer.gov/types/thyroid - Hypopharyngeal Cancer Treatment (PDQ, health professional version) — US National Cancer Institute, 2025. https://www.cancer.gov/types/head-and-neck/hp/hypopharyngeal-treatment-pdq - IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans (tobacco, areca nut, UV radiation, EBV, HPV) — International Agency for Research on Cancer / WHO, 2024. https://monographs.iarc.who.int/ - Trends of lip, oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancers in Australia 1982–2008 — BMC Cancer, 2013. https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2407-13-333 (lipAustralia: Lip cancer was the dominant oral-region subsite in Australia; strongly UV-related.) - Ultraviolet radiation and skin cancer (fact sheet) — World Health Organization, 2024. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ultraviolet-radiation - About Head and Neck Cancer — American Cancer Society, 2025. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/head-and-neck-cancer.html ## Boundaries - General information only; not a diagnosis or treatment plan. Survival numbers describe populations, not individuals. - Cost ranges are budgeting illustrations and must be confirmed by a written, itemised estimate after record review. - Where evidence or country-level data are missing, the site says so rather than estimating. - All pages are static HTML, openly crawlable, with MedicalWebPage / MedicalCondition / FAQPage / BreadcrumbList JSON-LD and a consistent author entity.